Allita Nagornaia （ELEC Instructor Administration Dept.）
I would like to invite you on a journey through time to explore how foreign languages were used, taught and learned in Russia. Let’s imagine ourselves as educators experiencing what it was like to teach in the Ancient Rus‘, Imperial Russia, the Soviet era, and modern Russia. We will trace the evolution of our relationship with foreign languages—how it grew, transformed, and ultimately became an essential part of modern life. Taking this journey will help us understand today’s attitudes and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages in contemporary Russia.
How about we start our journey in Ancient Rus’ (Kievan Rus’ from the 9th to mid-13th century)? At this time, Rus’ was a major cultural and economic hub, connected to Byzantium and Europe through trade and diplomacy. It was a powerful medieval polity in Eastern Europe, centered around key cities like Kyiv (Kiev), Novgorod, and Chernihiv. When Vladimir the Great converted Rus’ to Christianity in 988, religion, books, and foreign languages began to flourish. At that time, a person could only be considered educated if they possessed “a knowledge of books” and were “proficient in foreign languages” (Pavlovskaya and Ksenzenko, 2022). Learning a foreign language wasn’t just a tool, but a goal in itself. Greek (10th-12th century) and Latin (15th century) were learned not only for religious purposes but also because the nation’s curiosity about the world reflected a deep desire to explore and understand it— a key trait of Russian culture. Language education primarily took place in religious institutions such as monasteries and churches, and instruction focused on memorization, recitation, and the study of religious texts. Unlike later periods, there were no formal institutions dedicated to teaching foreign languages in Kievan Rus’. Education was informal and catered mainly to religious or practical needs.
Russia’s remote location, periods of political isolation, and psychological closedness made foreign languages and books the primary gateways to other cultures. This led to a curious phenomenon: people who had never traveled far from home often knew more about the outside world than professional diplomats or travelers. It was not uncommon for children to learn five languages while staying at home.
During the 16th century, under the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russia established extensive contacts with European countries, creating a strong need for translators to facilitate international communication. Boris Godunov attempted to organize schools to teach foreign languages to Russians. The range of languages being learned expanded beyond the traditional Latin and Greek. However, the teaching of foreign languages remained limited, focusing on specific practical needs such as diplomacy, trade, and religious scholarship. Language education during this time reflected the growing importance of international connections, though it was still not formalized or widespread. Diplomats, translators, and others involved in foreign affairs learned languages like Polish, German, and Tatar to communicate with neighboring states and tribes. Merchants, on the other hand, learned foreign languages informally, acquiring practical vocabulary and phrases through direct interaction with traders from Europe, Persia, and Central Asia.
In the 17th century, English became an important language in Russia, particularly for those involved in foreign trade. Many foreigners came to Russia in search of better opportunities and higher status; some were sent by their governments to gather information on a growing state with increasing power and influence, while others arrived out of curiosity. Wealthy families often hired these foreigners to teach languages to their children. Latin remained a key language for communication with Europe. Alongside Greek and Latin, Slavic languages, German, English, Italian, French, and Dutch gradually gained popularity. Foreign language education was primarily through homeschooling, often by foreign tutors, self-study with books, private schools, and emerging state educational institutions. Formal schools were rare, and access to education was limited to the elite. Without standardized curricula, the quality of language instruction varied greatly.
Peter the Great (18th century) was deeply committed to reforming Russia in order to modernize and strengthen the country, transforming it into a major European power. His reforms were driven by a desire to overcome Russia’s perceived backwardness and bring it in line with the advancements of Western Europe. Foreign languages, especially German, were crucial for learning and adopting European methods to establish new shipyards and arsenals. Additionally, Peter was inspired by his travels to Western Europe and sought to adopt their advanced technology, governance, and culture. He introduced Western-style education, clothing, and customs to Russian society, aiming to promote scientific inquiry, secular education, and the arts while reducing the Orthodox Church’s influence on state affairs.
As part of his efforts, Peter the Great established secular schools to replace the purely religious education system of previous centuries. Compulsory education was initiated as to enlighten and modernize Russian society due to his desire to bring Russia out of the dark. In 1724, Peter the Great founded St. Petersburg State University, which became a leading institution for higher education and scientific research, in line with the founding of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The Naval Academy included foreign languages in its curriculum to train diplomats, scientists, and military officers. Grammar schools (gymnasiums), often modeled on European systems, taught Latin, German, and French as part of a classical education. The gymnasium form of education adopted from Germany provided greater accessibility to education for the elites which contributed to the growth of national culture but also caused polarization of the educated elite further separating the group from the majority of Russian society. Wealthy families frequently hired foreign tutors, particularly from France and Germany, to teach their children foreign languages and European manners. These tutors emphasized conversational fluency, etiquette, and cultural knowledge, alongside grammar and vocabulary.
There were also humorous anecdotes from this period. One 18th-century story tells of parents hiring a teacher they believed to be French to teach their children French, only to discover that he was actually Finnish and had taught them Finnish instead (Klyuchevsky, 1990, p.35). French became the dominant language of the Russian aristocracy and court, serving as the lingua franca of diplomacy, literature, and high society, while German remained important for trade, scientific research, and military training due to its prominence in technical and scientific fields.
By the mid-1800s, foreign languages had become not only a standard means of communication among the upper class but had also begun to overshadow the native language. Knowledge of foreign languages and cultures, along with reading foreign books, helped Russians broaden their horizons, sharpen their minds, and develop a taste for systematic intellectual work. “… without knowing French, it is impossible to appear anywhere in public, as it has become, quite simply, a true sign of proper upbringing” (Andreev, 1999, p.96). The English language gained popularity in the early 19th century, along with English culture and fashion, leading to an influx of English teachers, governesses, and even nannies in Russia. However, French remained the dominant language among the Russian nobility. Its influence endured even during Napoleon’s invasion, demonstrating that political events do not always directly affect a society’s spiritual life. “In St. Petersburg, one could meet ladies who spoke French, German, English, and Russian with equal ease, and I can name those who could write in all four languages as well as they could speak them” (Ancelot, 2001, p.48-49).
In the 19th century, the use of foreign languages in Russia was closely associated with homeschooling, fashionable lifestyles, social interactions in high society, and everyday communication among the elite. Fluency in foreign languages became a key marker of social status and membership in the upper class. Greek and Latin remained essential in university education, while European languages continued to be crucial for accessing knowledge. In higher education, foreign languages were not taught as separate subjects; students were expected to demonstrate sufficient proficiency through entrance exams. Foreign languages were seen as a hallmark of a well-educated and cultured individual, offering access to world literature and playing a vital role in personal development. At the same time, they reinforced social divides, further distinguishing the upper classes from the broader population. In the mid to late 19th century, Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, renowned author of War and Peace, established schools for peasants at his estate in Yasnaya Polyana. These schools embraced an organic approach to learning, setting them apart from the rigid and formal educational methods prevalent in Russia and Europe at the time. Tolstoy admired the American public education system as a model of mass education and sought to adapt its principles for Russia, contrasting it with the often rigid and exclusive nature of the European system, which he strongly criticized.
The elite nature of secondary schools and universities in Tsarist Russia led to the creation of an intelligentsia that was largely disconnected from the majority of Russian society in terms of education levels.
During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the subsequent civil unrest, the teaching of foreign languages in Russia underwent a significant transformation due to the political and social upheaval. Education systems were disrupted, and priorities shifted as the old Tsarist regime collapsed and the Soviet government began implementing its policies. The revolution and civil war caused widespread chaos, leading to the closure of many schools, universities, and private tutoring services. Traditional methods of foreign language teaching, which had been elitist and focused on French, German, and Latin, were interrupted as aristocratic families fled, and private tutoring dwindled. As the Bolsheviks came to power during the October Revolution of 1917, they reshaped education to reflect Marxist-Leninist principles, emphasizing practical skills for workers and peasants over the classical education associated with the old regime. Foreign languages were initially deprioritized in the new educational system, as the focus shifted to promoting literacy and practical training in Russian for the broader population.
John Dewey, a renowned American philosopher and educator, had an indirect but notable influence on early Soviet education. His progressive ideas, emphasizing experiential learning, critical thinking, and the integration of education with social and practical life, resonated with Soviet reformers in the 1920s. Dewey’s focus on child-centered learning and his view of education as a tool for social reform aligned closely with the Bolshevik vision of using education to shape a new socialist society.
In 1928, Dewey visited the Soviet Union to observe its educational experiments. He praised the Soviet effort to connect education with labor and societal needs, viewing it as an ambitious attempt to create a practical, socially integrated learning system. However, while Dewey’s ideas initially influenced Soviet educational practices, this influence was short-lived. By the late 1920s and 1930s, the Soviet government shifted toward a more centralized and authoritarian model under Stalin, prioritizing rote memorization and strict discipline over the experimental and democratic approaches Dewey had advocated.
We should also highlight the pivotal role Lev Vygotsky played in advancing our understanding of learning and development during that period. Despite his groundbreaking contributions, many of his revolutionary ideas on cognitive development were suppressed under Stalinist policies. Vygotsky viewed language as both a cultural tool and a medium for thought, emphasizing its central role in shaping human cognition. He argued that inner speech, or thought, evolves from external social speech, underscoring the transformative power of dialogue and verbal interaction in education. This perspective fundamentally redefined the relationship between language, culture, and learning.
In Soviet Russia, education was viewed as vospitanie, meaning upbringing—intended to develop a society of virtuous and ideologically aligned citizens. The primary focus of this education was on science and technology, laying the foundation for a technologically advanced Soviet state.
The Soviet government emphasized the Russian language as a unifying tool across its vast, multi-ethnic territory. Russian became the lingua franca of the Soviet Union and was mandatory in all republics. Emphasis on socialist ally languages like German, Chinese, and other Eastern Bloc languages. English was also taught but often perceived as a “language of capitalism.”
Throughout the Soviet and post-Soviet eras, education in Russia underwent significant reforms, reflecting the evolving priorities and challenges of each period. As Bolshevik and Soviet control solidified, education became a crucial tool for promoting state ideologies. This included fostering a strong national identity among young people, instilling profound and stable knowledge for future professional activities, cultivating a Communist worldview, and ensuring devotion to the Soviet State and Socialist construction. The Soviet education system was highly centralized and tightly controlled by the state.
Post-World War II, the Soviet Union controlled East Germany as part of its Eastern Bloc. Teaching German helped facilitate communication and administration within this sphere of influence. German was one of the most commonly taught foreign languages in Soviet schools, alongside English and French. It was considered practical because of Germany’s proximity and importance in European affairs. Students learned German to study technical manuals, scientific texts, and literature.
In modern Russia, a variety of languages are taught in schools and universities, reflecting both global and regional interests. These include English as the most widely taught foreign language, considered essential for business, travel, and communication; German, French, Spanish are popular as a second foreign language; Chinese is gaining prominence, particularly in regions close to China, due to the expanding economic and political ties between the two countries, and some others. In addition to these foreign languages, regional and minority languages like Tatar, Bashkir, Chechen, and others are taught in areas where these languages are spoken. Russian remains the primary language of instruction across the country.
If we compare Soviet and post-Soviet approaches to education, the differences are striking. In Soviet schools, contact with Western countries was severely restricted. In contrast, modern Russian schools, driven by globalization and the demands of business, trade, and communication, have embraced opportunities to improve career prospects through international collaboration.
Soviet education relied heavily on the grammar-translation method, emphasizing rote memorization, grammatical precision, and written translation exercises. In contrast, modern schools have shifted to the communicative approach, focusing on practical skills such as speaking, listening, and conversational English. However, a distinct feature of the Russian approach remains the belief that fluency is achieved through accuracy. Russian educators emphasize rigorous grammar practice, memorization of vocabulary, phrases, and texts, aiming to automate language reproduction for smoother speech. Students are required to complete numerous dictations, grammar tests, and a substantial amount of homework. Fluency is gradually achieved through accuracy, building step by step over time.
Post-Soviet Russia gained access to authentic English materials, including exposure to native speakers, the internet, movies, and literature. This has significantly enriched the learning experience, providing students with a more realistic and practical understanding of the language.
have the freedom to choose from various programs (curricula). Each program determines the textbooks and supplementary materials used, though most textbooks are published domestically. Western-published textbooks are rarely used due to their cost and misalignment with the Unified State Exam (USE), which students take after completing middle school (9 years) and high school (11 years). Every high school graduate with an overall A or B grade, after 3-4 hours of English per week, demonstrates a confident command of the language at an intermediate to upper-intermediate level.
Teachers now undergo annual training to enhance their professionalism, ensuring they stay updated with modern teaching methodologies. Modern classrooms are far more interactive and student-centered compared to their Soviet counterparts. Soviet classrooms followed a rigid, teacher-centered approach, where the teacher held complete authority as the sole source of knowledge. In contrast, modern students are encouraged to engage actively through discussions, group work, language games and describing pictures, fostering a more dynamic and participatory learning environment.
In conclusion, the history of foreign language education in Russia shows how the country has adapted to changing times. From the early religious schools of Ancient Rus’ to the aristocratic influence in Imperial Russia, the strict methods of the Soviet era, and the more interactive classrooms today, each period reflects Russia’s evolving cultural, political, and educational needs. By looking at this history, we can better understand how modern Russia teaches foreign languages and how language continues to connect the country to the rest of the world.
（ナゴルナヤ・アリタ）